By ICC Fellow Linda Burkle, PhD  

Recently, I had the privilege of having lunch with Caleb, who lives in Cairo, Egypt.

Fluent in Arabic, Caleb ministers to college students at the National Christian University, one of several private Christian institutions and secular schools. Public, state-funded schools are Muslim, and Al-Azhar University, the largest public state university, is considered the historic and premier center of Islamic study.  

Caleb shared that Cairo has 23 million residents, including 3.5 million college students.(1) He has observed that many college students increasingly use the internet, especially social media, to explore ideas that challenge their traditional belief systems and allow them to exercise freedom of thought and speech. With internet availability, they can compare Islam with Christianity. 

At the same time, the internet gives the government an effective tool to surveil users and prosecute those whose posts are deemed violations of blasphemy laws and/or cybercrimes.(2) I will explore this trend further below.  

Demographics  

Like neighboring countries such as Turkey, Syria, and Jordan, Egypt was an historically Christian nation.  

“According to tradition, Christianity began just a few years after Jesus’ ascension when Mark the Evangelist traveled to Alexandria to spread the gospel, resulting in many converts.  

Early Christian communities evolved into three denominations: the Coptic Orthodox Church, the Greek Orthodox Church, and the Coptic Catholic Church. Under Roman rule, Christians faced extreme persecution for several hundred years. Since the 7th century, Egypt has been under Muslim rule.  

Throughout the years, the Coptic Christians, as well as the more recent growth of Protestantism, have endured differing degrees of discrimination under various governments. Despite discrimination, the Christian population is the second largest religion in Egypt.”(3)  

According to Open Doors International, a human rights organization that monitors religious freedom, there are an estimated 10,184,000 Egyptian Christians, 90% of whom are Coptic Orthodox. Christians represent around 10% of the total population of roughly 111.2 million, of which nearly 90% are Sunni Muslim.(4) Of all the Islamic Middle Eastern countries, Egypt has the largest population of Christians.(5)  

Although the overall population has grown, the percentage of Christians remains constant. Caleb has observed that more young people are questioning their faith and exploring Christianity, but because of persecution, especially from family members, conversions are often kept secret.(6)  

Egypt has a young demographic profile, with a median age of about 25 years. Youth aged 18 to 29 account for 21.3 million, or 19.9% of the country’s total population.(7) Caleb noted that there are two classes of people in Egypt: the elites and the poor. There is no middle class. The elites are almost exclusively Muslim, and they are “above the law.”  

For example, wealthy women, such as the president’s wife, do not need to wear a hijab, but poorer women must. The few wealthy Christians own businesses offshore in other countries. Also, corruption affects civic life and is notably socially and politically stratified. National ID cards that identify religious affiliation facilitate easy discrimination in employment.  

Poorer Muslims typically secure jobs as security officers and guards. The employment options for Christians, other minority religions, and atheists are limited. Minorities other than Christians are identified on their state-issued ID cards with a dash (-).  

Christians and other minorities typically secure employment in low-paying jobs that no one wants, most commonly as sanitation workers.(8) In Cairo, many Christians live in what is referred to as “Garbage City,” where garbage is dumped.  

Framework for Protection and Persecution  

Article 2 of Egypt’s constitution “states that ‘freedom of belief is absolute’ and ‘the freedom of practicing religious rituals and establishing worship places for the followers of divine religions (i.e., the three Abrahamic faiths, Islam, Christianity, and Judaism) is a right regulated by law. However, Islam is codified as the state religion, and Sharia law is the foundation of legislation.”(9)  

Article 64 provides formal legal status for the “divine religions” to publicly practice their religion and build houses of worship.(10) National identity cards are assigned to everyone, stating their religion. Such identification makes Christians and other minorities easy targets for discrimination in education, healthcare, and employment.  

Those of other religions, such as the Baha’is, Jehovah’s Witnesses, or atheists, have no legal status; therefore, they cannot legally marry, build houses of worship, or participate in civic life. They are confined to a legal no-man’s-land on the margins of civic life.  

According to Article 2, conversion to Christianity is technically legal in Egypt, but it involves significant bureaucratic hurdles that create practical barriers to conversion. Converts are often monitored and charged with various vague crimes related to blasphemy.  

Converts from and to any other religion are not allowed to change their national identity cards. Therefore, Egyptian law does not recognize converts to Christianity. Because the Constitution is founded on Sharia law, any religious practice that contradicts varying interpretations of Sharia law is prohibited. Under the stricter interpretations, conversion from Islam is viewed as apostasy. Thus, a glaring contradiction exists between constitutional legal rights and their actual application.  

Caleb and I discussed persecution of Christians within the illusion of “freedom of religion” as one of the protected “heavenly religions” identified in the Constitution.  

An article published in May 2026 by International Christian Concern (ICC) stated that earlier that month, Egypt granted legal status to 191 churches that previously were not officially recognized but were operational.  

“In total, 3,804 churches and related buildings have been approved since the creation of a committee to review churches in 2016, according to media reports and watchdog group Christian Solidarity Worldwide.”(11)   

“However, the approval system is separate and more difficult than the approval process for Sunni Muslim mosques. While the recent approvals of church buildings are welcome news by a Coptic human rights activist, it deflects from the ongoing violence, discrimination, and marginalization of Christians.  

“It’s not about the churches; it’s about our existence,” he said. “It’s not about a building; it’s about freedom.”(12)  

In recent years, the Muslim Brotherhood has played a prominent role in government and in implementing laws and policies. As such, they have fomented anti-Christian rhetoric, resulting in church lootings and burnings, and persecution of Christians.  

Under the current regime, most of the persecution occurs at the community level, where Christian’s experience discrimination in employment, school, and accusations of blasphemy. The most extreme persecution occurs in Upper Egypt, where Islamic hardliners are most prevalent and causing Christians to flee.(13)  

In rural areas especially, community pressure adds to the risk of converting to Christianity, with many converts ostracized by their families and communities. Caleb shared that he knew of a young Muslim man who was comparing Islam to Christianity online. His family found out and planned to kill him. His sister warned him, and he fled to safety. Sadly, the sister was then killed in his place.  

These incidents are not uncommon, as more Muslims with questions turn to the internet for answers, putting them in danger in their own homes and communities.(14)  

The 2014 Constitution includes two mechanisms most frequently used to target individuals’ freedom of religion and free speech. The Penal Code (Article 98f) is the primary blasphemy statute, criminalizing “contempt of heavenly religions” (Sunni Islam, Christianity, and Judaism).  

Anyone convicted of using defamatory or mocking words in speech, writing, or depiction, including online, is subject to a prison sentence of up to five years.(15) 

“While these laws prohibit ridiculing or insulting the ‘divinely revealed’ religions of Sunni Islam, Christianity, and Judaism, an estimated 90% of blasphemy charges are brought against Christians.(16)  

In addition, the Cybercrime Law (Law 1750f 2018) is used for digital enforcement; Article 25 expands the scope of prosecution by forbidding any online content that “infringes on family principles or values in Egyptian society. The state interprets these ‘family values’ through a conservative framework rooted in Sunni Islam.”(17)  

Any Muslim comparing Islam to Christianity online or asking questions related to religion in group chats or other social media forums becomes a target for arrest. In recent years, especially since 2014 when Abdi Fettah el-Sisi became president, there has been a dramatic increase in arrests of Christians for blasphemy and cybercrime. Below are a few examples of Christians who have been detained, awaiting trial, convicted, and/or imprisoned. 

In January 2026, Augustinos Samaaan, a Coptic Christian scholar and YouTuber with a following of more than 100,000 subscribers, was convicted and sentenced to five years of hard labor for online content teaching and defending his Christian faith. He was accused of “misuse of social media” and “contempt of religion.”  

In April 2026, he filed an appeal to overturn his conviction. “His case represents a broader pattern rather than an isolated incident. Since August 2025, dozens of individuals have been arrested in Egypt in connection with online religious content, including young people posting on social media, converts speaking about their faith, and individuals engaging in religious discussion or critique. This pattern suggests that the application of blasphemy laws is expanding beyond isolated cases to encompass a wider range of religious expression, particularly where that expression is perceived as conflicting with Islam.”(18)  

“Augustinos’ peaceful expression is a clear violation of religious freedom. Sharing content about your faith online should never lead to criminal punishment. Everyone has the fundamental right to peacefully express their faith. We hope that Egypt will reverse this egregious conviction and release Augustinos.” … “The Egyptian government is increasingly monitoring the online activity of Christians and other religious minorities, while more people are being imprisoned simply for expressing their beliefs through social media. We call on the government to reverse course and honor its commitments to protect religious freedom and freedom of expression,” stated Kelsey Zorzi, Director of Advocacy for Global Religious Freedom at ADF International.(19)  

Abdulbaqi Saaed Abdo, a Yemeni Christian father of five, was convicted and imprisoned on charges of “blasphemy” for peacefully sharing his Christian beliefs in a Facebook group. He had been held in pre-trial detention without charges for almost three years. 

Ironically, he had been living in Egypt as a United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) registered asylum seeker because of death threats he received in Yemen for converting from Islam to Christianity. With advocacy from an international human rights group and pressure from the U.S. Congress, which highlighted his case, he was later released from prison and has safely relocated abroad.(20)  

Human rights groups, such as the Foundation for the Defense of Democracy, have urged the United States government to take a more active role in holding Egypt’s government accountable to abide by international agreements.  

“Egypt’s imprisonment of this Christian refugee is a gross violation of fundamental human rights and freedom of expression. The Sisi regime is a repeat offender when it comes to religious and human rights, and this case only puts a spotlight on these abuses. The United States should hold Egypt accountable by imposing targeted sanctions and calling for international scrutiny to pressure Cairo into reforming its oppressive blasphemy laws,” stated Clifford D. May, FDD founder and president.(21)  

Sherif Gaber, 32, a blogger and YouTuber, was arrested by security forces at his home in Cairo on Nov. 3, 2025, and subjected to “enforced disappearance for around 56 days before (being brought) before a prosecutor. Since 2013, authorities have repeatedly targeted Gaber for his online religious expression. Between 2013 and 2024, courts sentenced him in absentia on three separate trials to one, three, and five years in prison in connection with ‘contempt of religions’ charges. He remains detained pending investigations.”(22)  

Within six months, at least 29 people between the ages of 18 and their late 50s were arrested by security forces for having posted online content expressing or simply discussing religious views that diverge from state-sanctioned religious narratives.  

They were charged with “contempt of religions” and “joining a group established in violation of law.” If convicted, they face up to five years in prison.  

“Posting religious views online or taking part in discussions about belief or non-belief is not a crime. Yet the Egyptian authorities have intensified their crackdown on those discussing religious matters online in breach of the country’s international human rights obligations and more specifically the commitments the authorities made regarding freedom of religion during the country’s 2025 Universal Periodic Review at the U.N. Human Rights Council,’ said Mahmoud Shalaby, Egypt and Libya Researcher at Amnesty International.”(23) Those arrested are often held indefinitely before trial and endure various forms of interrogation and torture.  

As the arbitrary arrests for the expression and discussion of religious views have escalated, the outcry from the international community has intensified.  

The Open Doors 2026 World Watch List ranks Egypt as the 42nd worst country for persecution of Christians.(24) In its 2026 Annual Report, the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) recommended that the U.S. Department of State designate Egypt to be added to the “Special Watch List’ as a country engaging in systemic and ongoing violations of religious freedom.(25)  

Even Newsweek, a secular publication, noted that U.S. President Donald Trump has pledged to “hold accountable” governments that persecute Christians. Despite being a major beneficiary of U.S. military aid, Egypt is escalating detentions and prosecutions of religious minorities.  

While Sisi touts the religious tolerance and protections of religious minorities, his administration’s actions prove otherwise.(26) In addition, the United Nations Human Rights Committee noted that Egypt is in violation of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR).(27)  

Based on his experiences with Egyptian college students, Caleb said he believes the internet will lead many more Muslims to leave Islam, as it allows exploration and discussion of religious beliefs. However, as has been presented, it also provides the government with another tool to monitor and persecute its citizens.  

The international community must continue to pressure Egypt to protect religious minorities in keeping with its own Constitution and end the arbitrary arrests and detentions. Permitting church buildings is one thing — and vastly different from allowing individual freedom of religious expression.  

We, as the global church, must continue to advocate, act when appropriate, and most importantly pray for our persecuted Egyptian brothers and sisters.    

Sources  

1. In-person meeting and interview with Caleb W, July, 2026  
2. Ibid.  
3. https://persecution.org/2025/01/09/the-christians-disappearing-from-biblical-lands/
4. https://www.opendoorsus.org/en-US/persecution/countries/Egypt/
5. https://www.facebook.com/vomusa/posts/egypt-egypt-has-the-largest-population-of-christians-in-the-middle-east-pray-tha/1307584878070142/ 
6. In-person meeting and interview with Caleb W, July, 2026  
7. Ahram Online, https://enlsh.ahram.org.eg  
8. In-person meeting and interview with Caleb W, July, 2026  
9. state.gov/reports/2020-report-o-international-religious -freedom/Egypt
10. https://constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/Egypt%20Constitution.pdf  
11. https://persecution.org/2026/05/28/egypt-grants-legal-status-to-191-more-church-buildings/egypt
12. Ibid.  
13. https://eg.usembassy.gov/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/  
14. In-person meeting and interview with Caleb W, July, 2026  
15. https://minorityrights.org/criminalizing-blasphemy-implications-for-egypts-religious-minorities/
16. https://www.fdd.org/analysis/2024/08/21/u-s-lawmaker-highlights-plight-of-christian-man-imprisoned-in-egypt-over-facebook-posts/  
17. https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2025-02/2025%20Egypt%20Country%20Update.pdf
18. https://adfinternational.org/news/christian-youtuber-in-egypt-faces-five-years-imprisonment/  
19. Ibid.
20. https://www.fdd.org/analysis/2024/08/21/u-s-lawmaker-highlights-plight-of-christian-man-imprisoned-in-egypt-over-facebook-posts/  
21. Ibid.  
22. https://www.amnestyusa.org/press-releases/egypt-authorities-must-end-crackdown-on-individuals-discussing-religious-beliefs-online/  
23. Ibid.  
24. https://www.opendoors.org/en-US/persecution/countries  
25. https://www.uscirf.gov/news-room/releases-statements/despite-promoting-religious-tolerance-egypt-represses-religious-life  
26. https://www.newsweek.com/egypt-tests-trumps-pledge-to-defend-persecuted-christians-opinion-11506914
27. https://docs.un.org/en/A/HRC/WG.6/48/EGY/2 

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